Buma lacquerware
from “Burmese lacquerware”, Sylvia Fraser-Lu, White Orchid books,
Bangkok, 2000
1 The Lacquer Process
2-Techniques of Lacquer Decoration
3- Lacquer ware Objects for Secular and religious Use
The Lacquer Process
The Lacquer Tree
The lacquer used in Burma is called thit-si (wood resin), which is the
sap of the Melanorrhoea usitata, a tree native to Southeast Asia. It
differs slightly from the Chinese and Japanese species Rhus vernicifera
and is completely unrelated to the shellac used in India and Europe,
which is made from the resinous secretion of the insect Coccus lacca.
The lacquer tree grows wild up to elevations of 1,050 m
on laterite and sandy soils in the drier forests of Burma. Reaching
15-18 m in height with a girth of 2-3 m when fully grown, its first
branches begin several meters above the ground (Rodger 1936:63). Covered
with a canopy of large leaves, it is a fine upstanding de3nizen of the
rain forest and is particularly striking in full bloom when it assumes a
mantle of thick creamy white blossoms witch later turn red. The flower
buds emit a fragrance reminiscent of apple blossoms. Being edible, the
buds are sometimes used to flavor a curry. To some Burmese, falling
lacquer blossoms are the harbinger of a storm.
The wood of the lacquer tree is a rich dark red flecked
with yellowish streaks. It acquires a deeper tone with age. This dense
hard durable wood takes on a high polish and is suitable for high
quality furniture. Because it is close-grained, it has been a popular
wood for house posts, bridges, anchors, and handles for tools and
weapons. It was once widely used for making charcoal (Shway Yoe [1882]
1963:275). Despite its varied uses, there seems to have been no attempt
to cultivate it using plantation management techniques.
The resin is tapped by making two diagonal notches 20-5
cm-long to form V-shaped incisions 5 cm deep in the trunk of the tree. A
grey viscous liquid exuding from the notch slowly trickles into a small
bamboo cup which is secured by inserting a sharpened edge into the base
of the V. Up to four or five incisions may be made, one above the other,
to a height of nearly 2 m on a full grown tree. Once a tree has been
tapped, this area has to be left for four to five years to heal
completely before being tapped again. If a tree is large enough, it is
possible to rotate the tapping and t hereby produces lacquer
continuously. Tapping, unless excessive, does not seem to have an
adverse effect on the life of a full-grown tree (Morris 1919: 2 and Hla
Aung 1959:188).
Although in theory a tree can be tapped all year round,
this activity is usually avoided during the fruiting season from January
to march. The lacquer tends to be thin at this time and does not take on
such a brilliant polish (Shway Yoe [1882] 1963:275). The resin is
collected in dry weather, because the presence of rain either washes
away or dilutes the lacquer may be preserved either by storing in
airtight containers or by pouring approximately 5 cm of water over the
surface. The water seal prevents air from reaching the lacquer and
causing solidification. However, the addition of water do3s not improve
the quality, for the lacquer soon absorbs some of the moisture which
alters the color and renders it less durable and glossy.
Qualities of Lacquer
The best quality of lacquer is called this-si ayaung-tin, a deep
lustrous black lacquer. This is resin, which has just been tapped from
the tree. It gives the best gloss, as the water content is less than 25
per cent. Second quality or ‘brown’ lacquer contains up to 30-35 per
cent water while inferior or ‘yellow’ lacquer may have up to 40-45 per
cent water.
Raw lacquer, an oleo-resin, consists of
catechol and urushilo compounds along with water, various gummy
substances, and proteinaceous matter making up to balance. Hardening to
a jet-black color takes place when the urushiol materials polymerize on
the diastolic matter. To dry successfully lacquer requires a warm
temperature between 20-8 degrees centigrade and a relatively high
humidity, preferably over 55 percent (Garner 1979:22 and Strahan and
Maines 1999). At that time lacquer must also be kept away from direct
sunlight which tends to pucker and blister the surface, although fairly
warm conditions are required, temperatures above 45 degrees centigrade
are too high and will interfere with the setting process. The end of the
Burmese rainy season (around September) is considered to be the ideal
time for drying. At this time climatic conditions are moist but not too
hot (Khin Maung Gyi 1963: 16-21).
Most workshops construct an underground cellar (taik)
on the premises for drying lacquer. This cellar is bout 2.5 m high and
averages about 3-sq. m in area. Step lead down to an earthen floor
surrounded by brick or concrete walls lined with mat-covered wooden
shelves. An earthen floor is essential for generating a moist
atmosphere. A heavy trapdoor assists in maintaining moist, dark
conditions. An average sized cellar can hold between two and three
hundred pieces of drying lacquer at one time.
The best raw lacquer comes from Mokeil, Loilem,
Keng-tung, and Law-sawk in the Southern Shan States. Katha in the
Sagaing district and Bha-mo in Kachin State also produce high-grade
lacquer. Second quality lacquer comes from Hsen-wi in the Northern Shan
States, and from Pyinmana and Lewe north of Taung-ngu. Lacquer is
usually purchased in ten viss cans. Early 1980 prices ranged from 500 to
700 kyat per can depend on quality.
Prior to use, the lacquer resin is usually warmed in
the sun for a short time. While warming it turns from a light
greyish-brown color to a glossy black. Lacquer is somewhat caustic and
has been known to cause inflammation to the skin (Garner 1979: 21).
Prolonged exposure can damage the lungs, while extended contact with the
substance within the confines of the cellar can also irritate the eyes.
Base Materials: Wood, Bamboo, and metal
Lacquer in many eastern civilizations initially served as a
waterproofing varnish and has been used to caulk boats in China,
Vietnam, Thailand, and Burma. An excellent adhesive, it has also been
used to varnish stone, iron, and leather, as well a s to waterproof,
stiffen and preserve woven baskets, paper, and cloth products. A number
of ethnic groups in Southeast Asia, particularly in the upland areas
continue to use lacquer for such purposes. For example, the Karen people
of Burma continue to reinforce their distinctive collecting baskets and
woven betel boxes with one of two coasts of lacquer.
Over the last two millennia, however, these early
practical uses have largely been obscured by lacquer’s unique potential
for beautifying objects to which it has been applied. For decorative
lacqerware the process begins, in most cases, with the construction of a
base object in either wood or bamboo. Softwoods such as baing
(Tetrameles nudiflora), di-du (Bombax insigne), and let-pan (Bombax
malabaricum) are used to produce everyday objects such as rectangular
boxes, folding tables and screens. Where greater weight and durability
are required for structural objects such as monastic furniture and
architectural fixtures, teak wood (Tectona grandis) is used. Many gilded
and inlaid objects are made from wood.
The best quality lacquer is usually made from a base of Bamboo. Tin-wa
(Cephalostachyum percale) or myinwa (Dendrocalumus strictus) from the
central Sagaing Division are considered the best with their 15 m by 8-cm clumps
and widely spaced interposed (Khin Maung Gyi 1981: 3 and Rodger 1936: 77-8).
After frying, the bamboo trunk, which is retailed in 3 m-long clumps in
handles of one hundred, is cut just below the joints with a machete.
These cylindrical pieces are then split with a sharp knife into long
thin strips, which may be flat, or round depending on the type of
receptacle to be made. The strips can be coiled, twisted, or woven into
the desired shape and dimension. The outer bark and inner core sections
of the bamboo are not used.
In the case of coiling, the bamboo is split into 1-2
cm-wide strips by women who then pass them on to the men for the next
step of the process. The first coil is held firm by interlocking notches
reinforced with a knot made from cotton thread. Subsequent strips of
bamboo are added, one after the other, to achieve the desired shape.
Throughout the process the artisan checks the object for size and taps
it now and then to make sure that the bamboo coils fit together tightly
and evenly. Trimming and shaving the object with a sharp knife is also
part of the process. Some objects such as flower vases are made in two
or three parts which are alter fitted together to create a continuos form.
For items requiring a rounded surface, bamboo strips
are twisted and woven together by women. As with basketry, several
weaves are possible. A three-fiber twisted weave is very popular with
many establishments. For the finest wares requiring a extremely light
pliant framework, a warp of ultra-fine bamboo is interlaced with a weft
of hair from a horse’s tail. This woven combination produces a bowl so
flexible that the opposite sides may be pressed almost tougher without
damage to the lacquered surface.
In the case of bowls
the base is first woven on a circular flat surface resembling a stool.
The center is then pierced and placed over a spindle, which rests on
supports. A wooden mould or chuck of the desired size and shape is
fastened to the spindle and the walls of the bowls are pulled up and
woven around it. In the case of betel boxes the base and sides are woven
separately and joined later. The large flat surfaces of objects such as
small tables, baskets, and food containers may be cut from previously
woven matting. The matting is then attached to a wooden or bamboo
framework to create the desired form. On many objects more than one
technique is evident. A number of larger bamboo food receptacles may
comprise a woven bowl covered by a coiled lid.
Many simple objects such as rectangular boxes and small
tables are sawn and assembled from planks of wood by carpenters. Some of
the most beautiful of the circular lacquer receptacles have been
artfully fashioned into very distinctive shapes by Burma’s imaginative
and talented wood turners, who with simple foot-operated lathes, are
able to convert a simple block of wood into a curvaceous vase, a flaring
rice receptacle, or a monumental stand supported on a pedestal of
bulbous rungs. Wood carvers have also lent their skills to beautifying
lacquer objects and screens with fine openwork embellishment and to the
decoration of finials and appendages with artful zoomorphic forms.
Sheet metal is also used as a foundation base for Burmese
lacquer ware. The majority of monks’ bowls used in Burma today is made
from beaten metal covered with lacquer. Even bowls made of earthenware
are finished with a coat of lacquer. The hti, the fanciful gilded
umbrella that crowns the apex of virtually every pagoda in Burma, is
made from concentric circles of iron connected by lacquer and gilded
openwork shapes cut from sheet metal. Metal frills of gilded openwork
may be added for further decoration to some wooden lacquer object.
Preparing the Surface
Once the base object is made, it surface must be prepared for lacquer
ornamentation. The object is first sealed with a layer of lacquer which
ash been mixed to a smooth paste with finely sifted ground clay. This
coating fills the larger interstices. The object is then put in the
cellar to dry for three to ten days depending upon in the weather. After
hardening, the object is smoothed and polished with wet pumice stone on
a hand-operated lathe, which consists of a spindle resting on two
supports. A leather string attached to the spindle is tied around a
stick resembling a violin bow. The operator sets the lathe in motion by
pushing the bow diagonally to and for over the spindle to wind and
unwind the leather cord around it which causes the spindle to rotate.
Once the object has been polished, a second coating of
finer material (htaung-thayo) is applied, it is made by mixing lacquer
with finely sifted ash made by burning teak sawdust. Glue from boiled
rice may sometimes be added to increase adhesives. For the finest work,
the ash is obtained from burnt cow dung, rice straw, or powered bone
which has been carefully sifted through a cloth before being blended
into the lacquer to form htei-thayo. The remainder of the process is one
of continual smoothing and coating with lacquer, alternating with drying
in the cellar until the entire rough part shave disappeared. As the
article comes closer to completion, the something is more carefully done
with a variety of abrasives such as the leaf of the dahat tree (Tectona
hamiltoniana), rice (padi) husks and water, fossilized wood or teak
charcoal.
The entire process, including drying periods, can take
as long as six months. For everyday plain wares the process is completed
with a final coat of good quality lacquer. The artisan is left with a
smooth shiny black lacquer object, which is rubbed with sesame oil and
polished to a high brilliance with a chamois of buffalo leather.
Colorants
For colors other than black, the natural color of lacquer a variety of
pigments are used. The characteristic vermilion of Burmese lacquer,
called hin-thabadca, comes from finely ground cinnabar (mercuric
sulhpide) which is imported from China. Before being applied to as
surface, the colorant is mixed with a little lacquer resin and worked to
a smooth consistency with some tung oil (shan-zi) which comes from the
tree fruit of the Aleurites triloba or dipterocarpus turbinatus. Minute
quantities of’ special’ additives might also be included. It was said
that the formula for hin-thabada was traditionally ‘ a so closely
guarded secret that a husband [would] not impart it to his wife and a
father only to the most trusted of his son’s (Hardiman 1912; 125).
On inferior wares a cheaper alternative–red ocher from India
(mye-ni), is used (Berney 1832: 171). The color is less brilliant and
after extended use may exhibit a tendency to flake. Red is the most
popular color for finishing the interior of receptacles.
In recent years, a deep chocolate brown has become a popular color on
both the exteriors and interiors of Burmese lacquer. Adding a higher
proportion of thit-si to the hin-thabada pigment generally makes it. On
inferior examples the brown is dull and thick. On better quality wares
an effort has been made to increase the sheen by the addition of thinner
better quality lacquer in more layers. According to Pagan lacquer
entrepreneur U khin Maung Maung, early Burmese examples of brown lacquer
were noted for their sleek shiny interiors. Unfortunately, the art of
making such a colorant (bok yaung) appears to be lost to posterity.
Individual artisans to rediscover the art of making lustrous brown
lacquer are conducting experiments.
Yellow (sei-dan) is made from orpiment (arsenic trisulphide) which is found
in the Shan States. It is pounded and washed several times until a fine impalpable
powder remains. This is mixed with a pellucid gum such as damar. When ready for use,
it may be applied dry or be worked up with a small amount of thit-si resin and shan-zi oil to
attain a suitable consistency. To make orange, orpiment is added to the hin-thabada.
A blue color (me-ne) was originally made from finely
ground indigo which like the textile dye, traditionally came from the
plant Indigofera anil. Present day indigo comes mainly from Germany and
India. Blue pigment, however, was rarely used in traditional Burmese
lacquer work, for the indigo does not combine well with the catechol
substances of raw lacquer, resulting in rather a dull finish. One part
indigo was added to ten parts of orpiment to produce a traditional green
color (Spearman 1880: 419). With age, many such green lacquerwares have
come to assume a leasing opaque turquoise hue. Because the process of
producing green is rather time consuming, coupled with the fact that
indigo pigment is in short supply in Burma, many craftsmen now
substitute green enamel paint for the original indigo and orpiment.
Gold-leaf
Gilding by applying gold leaf is a process synonymous with Burmese
lacquerware and Burmese art in general. The act of gilding in the
Buddhist world is considered a meritorious deed and many objects
intended for religious and royal use are embellished with gilt
decoration. In Chinese and Japanese work, gilding with powdered paint is
generally preferred. In Burma, however, most objects are gilded with
small tissue-thin squares of golf-leaf (shwei-bya) made from 24 carat
gold panned in the rivers of northern Burma. Powdered gold paint is
mostly confined to objects of inferior quality.
It is possible to see gold leaf being made by time
honored methods in the Myet-jpayat quarter of southeast mandalay (near
36th and 77-78th streets). Gold leaf begins as a thin stick of gold
about 1 cm wide, 0.5 cm thick, and 15 cm long. It is first heated and
drawn out in a small machine with rollers until it is about 11.5 cm
wide. It is then stretched by hand and beaten until it is approximately
30-cm ling by 60 cm wide. This fine sheet of gold foil is cut into 1-cm2
pieces, each of which is placed, on a 8 cm piece of bamboo paper lightly
powdered with rice flour. Some four hundred of these, interleaved at
regular intervals with rice straw paper, are piled one upon the other
before being wrapped in tow layers of deerskin.
This package is given to a beater who secures it to a
wooden frame clamped to a stone surface. He then strikes the package
evenly and rhythmically with a 1.5-3 kg weight hammer for half an hour.
This initial hammering causes each gold fragment to spread out over six
times the original area. After the first beating, each fragile sheet of
gold is cut into six pieces with bamboo or bone knives by women workers
who labor in a windowless room to minimize dust contamination and the
action of air currents in disturbing the fragile sheets of gold leaf.
Once again, each piece is placed on a sheet of lightly powdered bamboo
paper. This time the papers are stacked into a bundle of about 1,200
sheets. This bundle is protected by the addition of ten sheets of rice
straw paper before being rewarded in deerskin. The packet is hammered
alternately by two men for about two hours before the contents are
inspected. On reaching the optimum size, the gold leaf is re-cut into
pieces and packed into sets of nine hundred sheets and rewarded for a
final beating which lasts about three hours. On completion of the
beating process, women trim the gold leaf to the required size. Each
small sheet is interleaved with rice straw paper, before being packaged
in small bundles for sale (The Myat: 1959: 152-7 and Searle 1928: 146).
Use of Local Materials
With the exception of one or tow pigments, virtually everything required
for lacquer production is produced in Burma. The bamboo and wood for the
receptacles, the raw lacquer itself, and various oils and additives all
come from the forests of Burma. The use of other local products such as
teak sawdust, bone ash, rice husks, ochre, and fossilized wood further
reflect the Burmese lacquer worker’s ability to use local materials
creatively. The tools and the machinery used in producing lacquerware
are simple but effective. Knives, stili, pounders, and lathes have all
been cleverly adapted to perform the tasks associated with making
lacquerware.
Producing lacquerware is time consuming,
but it can be effectively organized as a cottage industry. An entire
village may be involved in the various phases of lacquer production. One
part of a village might make receptacles, while another locality
produces the matting required. Other areas might be responsible for
decorating and finishing. In some villages, many families have been
involved in the lacquer industry for many generations. Children begin
learning the craft at an early age. They start by helping their parents
and elder siblings at tasks of progressive difficulty. By the time they
reach adolescence, the majority of them are proficient craftsmen. In a
family business there may be a division of labor where the women make
the receptacles while the men decorate them. Older people are often
involved in the finishing process here superior strength and 20/20
visions are not essential. Women usually handle the financial side of
the business.
SIGNET
Techniques of Lacquer Decoration
Incised lacquerware Yunburma is fam8ous for a unique style of incised
lacquerware decoration called yun, which is also, the generic Burmese
term for lacquer. The surface of an object is engraved through tow to
three priming layers with a fine iron stylus (kauk) and the incisions
are them filled with coloring matter according to the dictates of a
design. This technique evolved in chian during the Warring States period
(475-221) BC) and continued to be practiced during the Han period (206
AC-AD 220) and then appears to have declined in popularity in favor of
other decorative lacquer techniques. However, there was a revival of
int4erest in China during the Yuan dynasty (AD 1280-1368) which was
noted for its linear gold etched (chiang-chin) lacquer designs (Garner
1979: 16-17, 40, 156-7).
As previously noted in the introduction, this decorative lacquer technique
was probably first seen in Burma on tribute items from neighboring states.
There is mention in the Kalyani
Inscriptions of 1476, of ‘twenty-two variegated ‘Haribhunja”
[Haripunchai, Thailand], betel boxes with covers’ that were formally
presented as gifts to visiting monks from Sri Lanka by King Dhamma-Zeidi
of Pegu (r. 1460-92) (Taw Sein Ko 1893: 41). The King of Chiang Mai is
also reported to have sent lacquerware to Pegu as an item of tribute to
the victorious King Baying-naung in 1557. Some seven years later as a
punishment following an unsuccessful rebellion against his overlord, the
King of Chiang Mai was forced to send numerous craftsmen, including
lacquer workers, to Baying-naung’s court at Pegu.
Traditional Incising Techniques
The decorative process for yun wares begins with the incising of a
freehand outline of the design into the smooth glossy red, black or
brown surface of the object. No stencils or patterns are used. The lines
vary greatly in density and complexity depending on the design. A
rhythmic liveliness and freedom of movement characterize the
best-incised lacquerware patterns with figural elements subtly blending
into the decorative details of the groundwork. Lacquer patterns resemble
line drawings rather than formal engravings. Simple parallel lines, a
feature of yun border decorations, are usually incised with a comb of
three or four sewing needles firmly fixed through a bamboo rod. For
circular sets of parallel lines, needles inserted into a modified
compass are used. A skilled craftsman is able to space the design so
accurately that on completion it is virtually impossible to see where
the design began and ended (Hla Aung 1959: 190). On the finest work at
Pagan, young men are responsible for the first set of incisions, which
block out the main complainants of a design. Subsequent incisions
require the finely tuned eye-hand coordination of highly skilled young
women to attain the intricacy of pattern characteristic of the finest wares.
Applying Colors
Once the primary incisions have been mad, the red hin-thabada colorant
is smeared over the object three to four times to make sure that all
incisions are filled with the coloring matter. The article is then left
to dry for three to four days in the cellar. When ’set’ the excess
pigment is removed by polishing the object on a lathe with wet rice
husks. For the best results each color is applied twice and the process
repeated. After polishing, the article is returned to the cellar to dry
completely. Once dry, a glue made from the resin of either the neem
(Azadirachta indica) or the acacia tree (Acaia farensiana) is painted
over the newly incised part of the object to seal the read color within
the engraved lines.
Once the glue has set, a series of new engravings are made for the next color,
which is usually green. As with red, the green coloring matter is rubbed over
the entire design and left to dry for a few days. The superfluous coloring matter
is then removed from the etched surface in to same manner as before, leaving
behind red and green in separately incised lines. Green appears only in
the new engravings. The final colors, yellow and orange, are applied in
the same manner. The entire design is then completely sealed with a
final coat of lacquer resin mixed with a little tung oil.
Finishing
Once the object is completely dry, it is carefully polished with wet
rice husks, ground fossil wood, and/or teak charcoal. This gives a fine
luster to the red or blank lacquer ground which shines through the main
engraved designs highlighted by the green and yellow. The interior of
the object is usually finished with a coat of red, orange or brown
lacquer derived from the hin-thabada colorant. It takes approximately
four to eight months to complete a fine piece of lacquerware. T he
averages object must pass through about twenty-six separate processes
altogether. For specially commissioned work, production can take up to
two years. The price of a lacquerware object varies according to the
amount of time and effort invested in decorating it.
The traditional yun decorative technique reaches its
highest development at Pagan. It is also practiced at Laikha in the Shan
States, and at Kyauk-ka in Upper Burma.
Innovations in Incised Lacquer Black Etched Wares
Inspired by the more restrained aesthetics of Far Eastern Lacquer,
European residents at the turn of the century commissioned black
lacquerware where incisions were made to expose the grayish matt finish
of the immediate priming coat, which presented a subtle contrast to the
shiny black surface. Sometimes these ware where further highlighted with
lines of gold paint with pleasing result. The majority of these early
examples appear to have come from Kyauk-ka in Upper Burma.
In the 1980s there was a revival of interest in these
wares amongst lacquer workers. Attempts were made to create a ’satin
damask’ finish through the painting of large floral and vegetal designs
in shiny lacquer on a Matt ground, highlighted by the odd sketchy
incision. The results by and large were less than satisfactory. This
bold new careless style did not appeal to regular purchasers of lacquer
(the Burmese housewives) and lacked the meticulous finish to widely
appeal to a foreign clientele. In the 1990s workers at Pagan returned to
the original method of detailed incising against a hatch stroke ground
to highlight the underlying Matt surface with more promising results.
These understated but intricately incised wares have become popular with
Japanese customers.
Green Wares
Green colored wares incised with small repetitive patterns in black, red
or yellow were at one time made in the Shan States, possibly at Laikha.
Designs tend to be geometric with circles predominating, which were
often highlighted by dots of yellow, or gold. Green wares depicting
figural elements are comparatively rare. Antique green wares of darker
almost blackish hue incised motifs in yellow were made at Pagan from mid
to late nineteenth century. Unfortunately, the art of making such wares
appears to be lost to posterity.
White Wares
The introduction of yun lacquer designs in black, red, and green against
a thick yellowish white ground was an innovation brought from Japan in
the 1950s by U Tin Aye, a former principal of the Government Lacquer
School, Pagan. However, a shortage of the vital white pigment in Burma
has prevented the widespread incorporation of these wares into the Pagan
lacquer workers’ repertoire. New Colors and Quicker Processing
Because traditional yun ware is subjected to many processes, alternating
with spells of drying in the cellar, it is very time-consuming to make
and relatively expensive for most Burmese. Since the seventies, lacquer
entrepreneurs have been seeking ways to produce attractive serviceable
lacquerware by shortening, combining, and in some cases eliminating
altogether, a number of the tedious processes associated with the making
of incised wares. Since there is little that can be done to shorten the
process of preparing the surface of an object without severely
compromising the quality and appearance of the final product, lacquer
workers have looked to decreasing the time spent on applying various
colors to an object.
With the endemic shortage and increasing prices of raw
materials needed to make traditional colorants, lacquer workers began
experimenting with oil-based enamel paints, which were readily available
on the black market at affordable prices. Kyauk-ka in the Mon-ywa area
during the late seventies led the way by producing gaily decorated
everyday wares in fresh bright color out side the traditional
conservative palette on a shiny black ground. On these wares the entire
design was first incised into the surface of the object. The incisions
were then filled with enamel colors–white, yellow, orange, and
brown–applied in broad horizontal bands or daubed over an area,
regardless of subject matter, so eliminating the traditional multiple
drying processes. Because enamel paints are thicker than the traditional
colorants, the designs could not be rendered in the intricate detail
associated with classic yun work. These bold colorful folksy wares
continue to be popular in Upper Burma, but due to transportation
difficulties they are rarely exported to other parts of the country.
Pagan artisans, who were initially disdainful of
Kyauk-ka’s efforts to simplify the yun the lacquerware process, in the
late eighties came up with a regressive process of their own using
commercially produced enamel paints. As with Kyauk-ka, the object to be
decorated has the whole design incised into the surface prior to the
application of the first color. The predominant color (which is often a
blue enamel.) is applied and then sealed with quick-drying glue from
acacia (Acacia farensiana). Any excess pigment and glue is quickly
removed. The second color is added immediately and the process repeated.
Up to three colors can be applied in a day, so eliminating numerous
time-consuming drying and smoothing processes. Such wares in addition to
blue include a palette of green, yellow, pink, and red. Although popular
with tourists, Burmese connoisseurs generally shun such wares, for the
enamel pigments are not as durable as those prepared by traditional
methods. Pigments on objects subjected to regular dairy use have a
tendency to fade and rub away after a few months. The palette also
displays an aesthetic, which is alien to traditional Burmese taste.
Painted and Layered Lacquerware
Unlike most producers of Asian lacquer, Burma traditionally has not made
widespread use of painting techniques to decorate lacquerware. The Shan,
inspired by the painted wares of their Tai compatriots in northern
Thailand, have traditionally embellished everyday objects of basketry
and wood by painting simple repetitive geometric patterns and
semi-abstract motifs in red and black lacquer. The designs on some show
similarities to wares of the Yi people of southwest Sichuan. Various
boxes, carrying baskets, and small tables are among the items decorated
in this way.
Encouraged by the Department of Cottage Industries,
Kyauk-ku during the colonial period began embellishing formerly plain
black everyday wares with oil-based paints in white, pink, green, and
yellow on a black ground. Subject matter consisted of European-inspired
floral sprays and birds rendered in a bold careless manner using color
loading and brush manipulation techniques adapted from Chinese painting.
Such wares continue to be made to this day. Today painting is commits
practiced in conjunction with incised work. The perimeter of the
decorative area may be different by series of parallel-incised lines
around a central painted motif.
Since the early nineties simple ’scenes of Burma’
rendered in oil colors overcome minimal incising on highly lacquered
plaques of different sizes have been produced for the tourist trade.
Marbled Lacquer Japan Yun
The technique of making marbled lacquer was introduced to Pagan lacquer
workers by the late U Tin Aye, former Principal of the Lacquer School at
Pagan, who was sent as State Scholar to Wajinam in 1954-55 to study
Japanese methods of lacquer decoration. While in Japan he studied a
number of new techniques, many of which unfortunately, could not be
introduced into Burma due to the non-availability of critical materials.
One technique which was relatively easy to learn and for which materials
were readily available, was that of marbling. It only required aluminum
or silver paint and lacquer. The earliest evidence for marbled lacquer
dates back to Tang Chian period (AD 618-906) where it came to be called
his pi, because of its surface resemblance to the wrinkled skin of a
rhinoceros or the worn surface of a leather saddle. Referred to as
byakudan-nuri or tsugaru-nuri, this technique has been know in Japan
since the sixteenth century Muromachi period when gold and silver foil
designs were coated with lacquer to impart a mellow finish to an object
(Lee 1972: 222).
Marbling came to be called Japan yun by lacquer workers
in honor of the source of its introduction to Burma. In this process the
surface of an article is initially prepared in the usual way and a
design is lightly etched onto the lacquer base. The design surface is
then coated with five to ten alternating layers of silver speckled
patterns. Although figurative motifs are possible, the majority of
designs favored by Burmese craftsmen are strongly geometric in form.
In Burma, Japan yun is made primarily as a cheaper ware
for the tourist trade. The majority of objects ten to be roughly
fashioned and the plain undecorated interior lacquer surfaces are not
always well finished. The use of finer sifted materials for the
underlying surface and more careful attention to detail throughout the
production process would improve the quality of these wares. Boxes and
bangles embellished by this technique are popular with tourists.
Gold leaf Lacquerware Shwei-zawa
The production of lacquerware embellished with gold leaf designs is
referred to as shwei-zawa in Burma. The act of gilding has always been
associated with the performing of a meritorious deed and its use in
relation to lacquer was at one time limited to royalty and religious
donations.
It is very likely that Burma acquired the technique of
gold leaf lacquer from Thailand, the leading exponent of this art form
in Southeast Asia. The earliest known Thai gold leaf wares (lai rod nam)
were made in the capital of Ayuthaya in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries (Garner 1979:265). The conquest of Ayuthaya in 1767 during the
reign of the Burmese King Hsin-hpyu-hsin (r.1763-76) caused many
artisans to be taken captive to Burma. So successful was this sieges
that virtually poets were taken en masse to Burma. This infusion of new
blood led to a flowering of literature and art in Burma under Kon-baung
court patronage (Htin Aung: 1967: 175).
The art of gold leaf lacquer was practised in Prome and
Mandalay in nineteenth century Burma (Fytche 1878: 313). One famous
craftsman, Hsaya Hpa who was known to be working in Prome c. 1916, was
singled out for special mention by European travelers to Burma and was a
recipient of prizes at the Indian Art Exhibition in Delhi that year. His
work has been praised for being ‘bolder in design and consequently more
attractive in many ways than the finikyh desighs from Mandalay’ (Moriris
1919: 9-10). Prome was especially noted for its gilded scripture chests
embellished with scene from the Life of the Buddha, the Ramayana epic,
and Burmese folktales.
By 1919 the art of gilded lacquer had died out in Prome, and apart from the
making of kammaqa-sa religious manuscripts, very little shwei-zawa work
is currently being done in Mandalay.
The few surviving examples that can be attributed to Prome
possess a lively elegance and a sureness of craftsmanship, which is not
always seen on more recent work. Unfortunately, delicate gold leaf
patterns do not stand up well to wear and tera. On many nineteenth
century examples the details of the designs have worn away.
Pagan is the present-day center for this art. Most of the items decorated
in the yun technique (bowls, plates, vases, and boxes) may also be embellished
with gilded designs.
The Gold leafing Process
Compared with the painstaking methods required for incised decoration,
shwei-zawa is less time-consuming, but requires a high degree of
artistic skill on the part of the craftsman.
The surface to be gold-leafed is prepared in exactly
the same way as for incised decoration. The object is formed and
receives several coast of lacquer until it has acquired a lustrous,
smoothly polished surface. Two slightly differing methods may be applied
to produce gilded decoration.
The most common process, which is used when a
predominately gold decoration is desired, is the negative design
technique. The craftsman, using a pen with a very fine point, carefully
paints in free hand the outline of a design with a water-soluble of
yellow orpiment and neem gum. He paints only those parts of the design
on which he wishes to reign the original lacquer color (usually black,
but occasionally red or orange). The area to which the gold is to adhere
is left unpainted and is a negative of the design. A thin coat of
lacquer is applied to those portions of the design, which are to be
covered with gold leaf. Thin squares of gold leaf are then spread over
the entire area and pressed onto the surface with a swab of cotton wool.
If the gold is to adhere successfully, great care must
be taken at this stage to keep the surface completely free of grease and
oil. Even a misplaced fingerprint will be visible on the final design.
After drying for approximately twenty-four hours, the object (which is
still slightly tacky), is washed in water. Excess gold leaf applied over
the orpiment solution washes away along with superfluous lacquer, gum,
and coloring matter. This allows the shiny lacquer background to show
through. As if by magic, the intricate gold leaf design emerges
simultaneously in all it s glory. The object is then returned to the
cellar to complete the hardening process (Khin Maung Gyi 1963: 18). The
water in which the object was washed is filtered to reclaim the excess
gold leaf for future reuse.
When a relatively small area (such as a central
medallion on a box, or the highlights in a painting) is to be decorated
with gold leaf, the artist creates a positive design by drawing a sketch
on the area to be gilded. It is then covered with a coat of lacquer and
the gold leaf is pressed into the sticky surface. When the object is
nearly dry, the excess gold leaf is washed away to reveal the details of
the design (Markert 1979: 44). Because of the special artistic skill s
required to roduce gold leaf designs, artists who perform this work are
among the highest paid in the lacquer industry.
Innovations in Gold leaf
Blue and Blod Wares
As with incised lacquer, gold leaf wares have also been subject various
innovations. Blue and gold wares became popular during the colonial
period. Tradition asserts that a Frenchman (who remains anonymous),
commissioned a complete dinner service with a matt blue lacquer surface
embellished with a Burmese chin-thei lion at the center surrounded by a
band of Chinese-in-spired fret type patterns and finished around the
edge with a plain gold rim. Other lacquerware establishments to sell to
foreign tourist eventually copied these pieces. Boxes and flower vases
have also been seen embellished in this technique, many of which appear
to be older than those with the chin thei design. Because the blue does
not adhere well to the underlying surface, on many of the older wares
the underlying black base-coat is clearly visible.
Incised Gold Wares
To give a greater depth, texture, and surface contrast to gold leaf
designs, into late seventies and early eighties it became popular to
incise the main motifs with an array of hatch-strokes prior to the
application of gold leaf. Because of the textured surface, the gold
surface is not as reflective as those of traditional shwei-zawa wares.
Around the same time shwei-zawa artisans in the workshop of U Ba Kyi
also began experimenting with creating pictorial plaques embellished
with effigies of Burmese temples and genre scenes, rendered in the style
of a European etching.
Combination Wares
The idea of combining the use of gold leaf and /or surface paint with
yun decoration appears to have been developed during the colonial period
but seem s to have declined in popularity prior to World War II. Chiang
Mai lacquer entrepreneurs revived the technique in the early eighties
when reproducing ‘Burmese’ lacquer objects for the tourist trade. Here
were to be found the odd yun-decorated object, with the heads of central
characters of a scene highlighted by glistening gold leaf which looked a
little strange amongst the more subdued palette of browns, reds and
greens on a black ground. The technique was eventually adopted by a few
workshops in Pagan that used gold leaf to highlight a predominantly
orange, red, and brown palette with more pleasing results. Lacquerware
samples of this technique may be seen at the Government Lacquer School
at Pagan. This combination technique has not become popular or
widespread amongst yun lacquer workers.
Relief-moulded Lacquer Thayo
As previously noted, lacquer resin when combined with the finely sifted
ashes of teak wood sawdust, pulverized bone, rice husks or cow dung,
becomes a thick filler paste (thayo). Applied in successive layers, it
forms the underlying base for the application of incised and gold leaf
decoration techniques. Thayo, however, when prepared from heated lacquer
mixed with the pulverized ashes of cow ding and then kneaded until thick
and smooth, is transformed into a fine plastic putty with a wax-like
consistency that readily lends itself to manipulation (Tilly 1901:11).
This pliable substance tenaciously adheres to paper, basketry, wood,
stone, and metal surfaces in the form of two-dimensional relief patterns
(Burney 1832:175-6).
Relief-moulden lacquer as decorative technique was
first developed in china where it was called tui-hung. Examples dating
from the seventh to eleventh centuries AD have been recovered. This
technique, however, never became widespread their and seems to have been
largely abandoned by early Ming times in favor of carved lacquer (Garner
1979: 270, figs 22-4). At some juncture this technique spread to
Southeast Asia and reached a higher standard than was originally
achieved in china. Relief-moulded lacquer reached its highest
development in Burma and has been described by one authority as ‘the
most aesthetically satisfying work produced by the Burmese sculptor’
(Rawson 1967: 200). At this point, it is not known how Burma acquired
the relief-moulded technique of lacquer decoration. The technique is
also known in Thailand where it has been popular in architectural and
furniture decoration. Like gold leaf decoration, the relief-moulded
technique might well have come to Burma via Thailand.
Technique of Relief-moulded lacquer
As with the previous methods of decoration, the surface of an object to
be embellished with thayo must be specially prepared by leveling and
filling all crevices with the usual mixture of row lacquer, powdered
sawdust, and a glue fro9m boiled rice. Once the surface is completely
smooth, it is ready for decoration. Occasionally the surface may be
reinforced with a layer of muslin or tulle-like cloth imbedded within
the upper priming coasts of lacquer.
A plastic thayo compound made from heated lacquer and
cow dung ashes is prepared and rolled into long vermicelli-like
‘threads’ which are lightly sprinkled with fine powdered ash to prevent
sticking. With the help of an iron stylus, these ‘threads’ are laid from
left to right on a lacquer-coated surface to demarcate the main design
areas with raised decoration that serve as a guide for the placement of
the more complex motifs that follow. Such motifs may be first sketched
on paper and then lightly etched into the surface of the object. Most
craftsmen are so familiar with the traditional patterns that this step
may be omitted. Artisans work seated on the floor beside a small
moulding board, and with the help of a small horn-shaped knife
(than-lef), they deftly fashion the thayo into sprays of flowers, small
figures, and elements of architecture. For repetitive ornaments, slate
and metal moulds may be used. The mould is first lightly powdered with
ask before the thayo is pressed into the design. When complete, the
decorated area is painted with a further coat of lacquer to make sure
that all elements of the raised design adhere firmly to the object.
The thayo remains pliant for a couple of days, after which it becomes
quite hard and assumes the appearance of polished ebony. In the finest work,
thayo designs look virtually identical to two-dimensional woodcarvings and are
in some ways superior.
Having no grain, thayo moulding is less liable to fracture.
Unfortunately, with age thayo does have a tendency to separate from the
surface of the object. Broken pieces, however, may be
easily reattached with liquid lacquer
Mandalay is the present-day center for relief-moulded
lacquer. A little is also produced in Likha and Kyauk-ka.
Glass Inlay
Hman-zi Shwei-cha
Thayo relief moulded designs are often highlighted with fragments of
colored mirror glass and mica cut into various shapes, a technique which
appears in south-East Asia to have reached its highest development in
Burma and Thailand. The process of placing glass fragments into the
thayo design in Burma is referred to as hman-zi shwei-cha. Like lacquer
techniques in general, it is not known how this inlay technique was
introduced or evolved in Burma. Harry Tilly and John lowly in separated
publications have suggested that this technique was either introduced
from Thailand during the eighteenth century or was given a fresh impetus
as a result of the wars between the two countries at the time.
In the light of the renaissance in Burmese
literature and art which followed the conquest of Ayuthaya in 1767, this
supposition is reasonable. Lowry is also correct instating that glass
inlay become a very popular medium of artistic expression in eighteenth
century Burma.
Technique
A cardboard stencil of the design is made in the workshop. The small
fragments of mica, mirror, and colored foil-backed glass are cut into
the desired sizes and shapes with a glazier’s diamond. The glass
fragments are then arranged on tray and lacquered on the back with
thitsi and a thayo of sawdust before being pressed one by on into the
desired position, often demarcated by strings of thayo. After all the
glass has been laid according to the dictates of the design, any
remaining gaps are filled with thayo. The object is next given a further
coat of lacquer, which is allowed to dry.
The surface is then smoothed and leveled in readiness for the gold-leafing process,
with is similar to that previously described for shwei-zawa work.a coat
of lacquer is applied over the exposed thayo areas and the object is
completely covered with gold-leaf which is allowed to partially dry.
Once the lacquer becomes tacky, the object is washed and the gold-leaf
peels away from the glass mosaic, adhering only thayo (Myat Daung
1964:14-15). The earliest know example of hman-zi shwei-cha work set in
thayo so far recovered is the cover of a palm leaf manuscript with a
date equivalent to AD 1790 which falls within the reign of King
Bo-daw-hpaya (1782-1819). The green, yellow and opaque with glass
decoration which is very thick chunky, has been fastened to the wooden
cover with a thick paste of thayo and further grouted together on the
surface by small bands of gilded thayo surrounding each fragment. In
earlier examples of hman-zi shwei-cha work the glass, which is cloudy
and frosted in appearance, is also thick and roughly cut. Strings of
thayo on the surface of the object bind the glass fragments together.
Occasionally one sees a ground of colored glass mosaic
which has been overlain with gilded thayo lacquer embellishment. This
technique, popular in Thailand may be seen embellishing some monasteries
and pagodas of the Shan Stateds.
During the Mandalay period (1857-1885) the glass
fragments gradually became smaller and finer. This was probably due to
the introduction of improved cutting tools from Europe. The use of
mirror glass in natural, pink and emerald colors became popular, while
the use of opaque glass declined. Haman-zi shwei-cha work of this period
rivals European rococo for their clear strong lines, complemented by
delicate modeling. The fragments of glass inlay; the relief-moulded work
appears heavy and the designs indistinct. Glass-inlay work is currently
practiced in conjunction with relief-moulded lacquer in Mandalay. A
little commissioned work is also undertaken at Pagan.
‘Disco Gold-leaf’ In the late seventies, Japanese gold foil with an
adhesive backing was introduced into Burma,. Sold in plastic backed
rolls and popularly called ‘disco gold-leaf’, it has become the
prevalent material used for gilding the more cheaply produced
hman-zi-shwei-cha decorated wares. Not unnaturally, gold foil owes it
popularity to its cheaper price and ease of application compared with
the use of the labor-intensive method of using delicate tissue-thin
squares of gold leaf. Foil can be easily cut with a pair of scissors
according to the size of the object being embellished. However, being
thicker, some of the sharpness of the original thayo patterns becomes
obliterated by this modern gilding method. To the purists, the harsh
glitter of the orange hue of the foil cannot compare with the bright
luminous glow emanating from the mellower gold leaf.
Man-hpaya
The previously described thayo mixture may also be used to model objects
in the round using the dry lacquer technique. Buddha images are the
chief objects to be fashioned in this medium.
This technique undoubtedly came to Burma from China where it has been
used for tomb receptacles since the first century BC and for making Buddhist
figures since the sixth or seventh century AD
As with other lacquer techniques of Chinese origin adopted in Burma, the time
and mode of transmission is not known.
Nor is there any conclusive evidence to suggest that Burma received the
dry lacquer technique via neighboring states for this technique does not
appear to have been popular in Thailand or Laos. Wood and bronze have
generally been the preferred media for religious sculpture in there
countries.
During the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
the making of dry lacquer images was centered on a number of small
villages thirteen kilometers west of Ye-u in the Shwei-bo district. They
included Me-O, Shin-the-mye Ma-lwe, and Leni-daw.
The craftsmen who made these images were not professionals;
they were farmers who fashioned them in their spare time. A man could
turn out thirty to thirty-five images in a season. These images were
largely made for a clientele in the Shan States.
Technique
A rough form of the image was first shaped from well-kneaded clay over
the strength branch of set-han-ya-thi, the yellow oleander (Theretia
peruviana) sued as armature. The main features were then moulded into
place with a wooden or iron knife (than-let). A wash of straw ash and
water was then daubed over the image before it was completely dry. A
thin casing of cloth soaked with lacquer at this juncture was probably
wound around this clay core. A plaster of thayo mixed with teak sawdust
was applied over the clay until it was about one centimeter thick. Using
the indispensable than-let, important elements such as the main folds of
clothing, facial features, and hair were added to render the stature
correct in every iconographic detail.
On hardening, the inner clay core was flushed away by
washing. For less accessible areas such as the head and the arms, the
image was cut open to remove the more stubborn remnants of clay. The
openings were then resealed with a thayo of thit-si and sawdust. After
resealing, the image was given a htin fine coat of filtered lacquer
mixed with the ash of straw or bran. The final details were then worked
upon with the aid of the thanlet, before rubbing smoothed the statue
with a stone lubricated with sesame oil. Once the image had hardened, it
was rewashed and polished in readiness for the final coat of the3
highest grade brown or black lacquers.
At this juncture relief-moulded thasyo and glass inlay might be applied for
further embellishment. Gold leafing, if desired by the purchaser, would
take place at this point. The donor’s name and pious aspirations might
also be added as an inscription on the base.
The majority of images were made from November to February during the ‘cool’
season when there was a lull in agricultural activities. This period
provided the best conditions for drying both the lacquer and the clay
core. If the weather was too hot, the clay core would cry faster, but
the lacquer would crack. Conversely, during the wet season the lacquer
would dry well, but not the clay core.
One of the most famous images to be made of dry lacquer
was commissioned by King Min-don (r. 1853-78) for the Atumashi Kyaung
(monastery), one of the monarch’s chief works of merit in Mandalay.
In the building was housed, on a richly gilt pedestal, a huge image of the Buddha with dimensions prescribed in the Buddhist scriptures. It is a manhpaya or a hollow lacquered image, made of the silken cloths of the king, covered with lacquer and gold foil. In the forehead of the image was studded a beautiful and precious diamond weighing 32 ratties which was Presented to King Bodhawpaya [Bo-daw-hpaya] (r.1782-1819), (who was King
mindon’s great grandfather) by the Mahamanawrahta, the Governor of Rakhine.
(Khin Maung Nyunt 1997: 79)
The practice of making dry lacquer images in Burma seems to have died
out during the late twenties possibly due to competition from small
cheap marble images from Mandalay and from pictures of the Buddha
painted on glass made in Rangoon (Than Tun 1980: 32). However, there are
still a number of craftsmen able to do excellent repairs on damaged dry
lacquer images with a traditional thayo of sawdust and lacquer.
email link: Piyiya Makornpan Youngblood